Exhibition Review: The Great Mughals: Art, Architecture and Opulence

In 1526, Babur (r. 1483–1530), a descendant of the Central Asian ruler Amir Timur and the founder of the Mongol empire Genghis Khan, invaded the Delhi Sultanate and established a new dynasty, known as ‘Mughal’, the Persian for ‘Mongol’. Despite being created and sustained by military warfare, the empire developed rapidly and became one of the richest in the world by the end of the 16th century under the rule of three prominent emperors: Akbar (r. 1556–1605), Jahangir (r. 1569–1627), and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58). Claimed as ‘the first exhibition to reveal the international art and culture of the Mughal court’, The Great Mughals: Art, Architecture and Opulence exhibition at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, (from 9 November 2024 to 5 May 2025) curated by Susan Stronge, takes us back to the golden age of the Mughal Court (about 1560–1650) to explore the fascinating artistic productions created under the rule of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. Although the scope of the exhibition does not include the founder of the empire, Babur, the linkage of the Mughal emperors to their Timurid ancestors is clearly indicated by the beautifully carved and inscribed white jade wine tankard of Timur’s grandson, Ulugh Beg (1394–1449). Recognized as one of the greatest rulers of the empire, Akbar became the emperor at a very young age of fourteen. Even though he is known to have been unable to read or write, he did not exclude himself from cultivating his interest in literature and visual art. During his reign, new imperial workshops were established, commissioning highly exquisite works of art. In the House of Books (Ketab-khana), beautiful manuscripts were made and stored, including the Hamza-Nama (Book of Hamza), the first major project commissioned by Akbar, which recounts the exploits of the legendary Muslim warrior Amir Hamza against a variety of unbelievers (fig. 1).

To rule a multi-ethnic empire, Akbar actively commissioned artworks connecting his Persian origin to local Hindu traditions. For example, a manuscript of the Persian translation of the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana was produced during his reign, with a seal indicating that this piece had once been kept in Akbar’s mother’s library (fig. 2) At the same time, European styles, too, were absorbed into court art via prints and artworks brought by Christian missionaries, foreign ambassadors, and merchants.

1
The Giant Zumurrud Shah and his army flee Hamza’s forces
From the Hamza-Nama; c. 1562–77
Opaque watercolour and gold on cotton backed with paper, 67.1×52 cm
MAK – Austrian Museum of Applied Arts/Contemporary Art, Vienna: B1 8770-28
Photo by the author

2
Rama and Lakshman hear from Sugriva, King of the Monkeys about the completion of the bridge to Lanka
Lahore, completed 25 Sha’ban AH 1002 (16 May 1594)
Opaque watercolour and gold on paper; 38.5×25.5 cm
The David Collection, Copenhagen: 16/1992
Photo by the author

Through his great patronage and a relatively pluralist cultural policy, artists and skilled craftsmen from Iran as well as newly conquered Hindu kingdoms were recruited into the imperial workshops. This not only elevated the quality of art but also stimulated a fusion of different traditions, resulting in the emergence of the recognizable ‘Mughal’ style. A good example is a folio depicting the story of a Muslim pilgrim learning a lesson in piety from a Brahman, infused with a strong sense of European style (fig. 3)

Akbar’s successor, his son Salim, claimed the title of Jahangir, ‘Seizer of the World’ at the age of thirty six. During his rule, the empire remained stable, well-governed, and immensely wealthy, which fostered a flourishing artistic culture. Jade and crystal were transformed into vessels, or handles and scabbards of daggers, all decorated with beautiful patterns, Persian calligraphy, or with rubies, diamonds as well as other precious stones. (fig. 4) At the same time, enameling skills, likely learnt from Europeans, were also employed in the court workshop. Not surprisingly, Sir Thomas Roe, England’s first ambassador to the Mughal emperor, described the empire as ‘the treasury of the world’.

Best known for the construction of the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum built for his beloved wife, the following emperor, Shah Jahan continued to commission sumptuous works of art. Accompanied by a short clip of the Taj Mahal, the exhibition showcases several architectural components to demonstrate the architectural design during his reign, including inlaid marble, painted tiles, and a pierced marble screen mounted on a gallery wall. Inspired by the Taj Mahal, floral motifs replaced other traditional patterns and spread across the empire. Such motifs were frequently found in jade, crystal, and enamel works, as well as painted on the borders of album pages.

3
A Muslim pilgrim learns a lesson in piety from a barhman 
Folio from a Khamsa (Five Stories) of Amir Khusrau Dehlavi, probably Lahore, AH 1006 (1597–8) 
Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, 25.1×15.9 cm
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York: 13.228.29 
Gift of Alexander Smith Cochran, 1913 
Photo by the author 

4
Dagger and scabbard
Nephrite jade set with rubies, emeralds and a pearl set in gold (hilt and scabbard); c. 1610-20
Mughal court workshops watered steel with gold-overlaid decoration (blade)
The Al Thani Collection: ATC598
Photo by the author 

The exhibition offers a fascinating and unparalleled visual experience, sparkling with reflections from gilt illustrations, gold works, textiles woven with gilt threads, and vessels or weapons richly decorated with gems, diamonds, and mother-of-pearl. Reflecting this focus on aesthetic appeal, mainstream media headlines include: ‘dazzling decorous delights waft you to paradise’ (The Guardian), and ‘a treasure trove of surpassing beauty’ (The Times).

Apart from the objects, the use of multimedia is very intriguing. Next to the display case of several mother-of-pearl inlaid pieces, a short video demonstrates how modern craftsmen reproduced such a work in similar decorative techniques, with the support of modern tools. Without a need of extensive textual explanation, the visual demonstration underscores the intricacy and brilliance of these works.

The exhibition also encourages visitors to examine the visual details of manuscripts. Since most visitors are unlikely to read Persian, manuscripts written in Persian calligraphy may prove challenging to appreciate. In response, instead of offering full translations, text panels prompt visitors to notice decorative elements within the lines or along the borders – sometimes depicting figures or animals and sometimes floral patterns. (fig. 5) Thus, even without any religious or cultural background, one can still be fascinated by the fabulous art – even though these elements were originally intended as mere decoration.

However, visitors may notice the absence of a key argument in the exhibition narrative. The curatorial arrangement does not seem to encourage in-depth conversation beyond celebrating the craftsmanship of a distant land. For example, only a short introductory panel notes the arrival of European styles in the Mughal court between Akbar and Jahangir, despite the numerous illustrations involving European elements. Similarly, the display of individual carpets and textiles throughout the exhibition also lacks context, serving primarily to evoke aesthetic enjoyment. (fig. 6) Moreover, while the exhibition highlights the emperors and their court life, it offers little mention of court ladies.

5
Border with floral patterns of the Calligraphy by Dara Shokuh
Illumination by a Mughal artist; 1630–31; the borders c. 1640–50
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold on paper
V8A: IS.37.2-1972
Photo by the author 

6
The lIchester Carpet 
Multi-stranded (z8s) ivory cotton warps; three light pink cotton wefts; sheep’s wool pile, 45 knots per square cm/ 290 knots per square inch, asymmetric open to the left 
604 x 247 cm 
Private Collection 
Photo by the author 

Indeed, many questions are absent from the exhibition narrative while the omission is likely not due to negligence on the part of the curator and her team but rather a strategic decision, particularly as the exhibition catalogue offers a series of dedicated essays exploring numerous aspects beyond the exhibition itself. For an exhibition introducing a lesser-known culture, capturing the audience’s attention is the primary goal—without sparking initial interest, deeper engagement is unlikely to occur. Considering that many visitors in London may be encountering the names of the three Mughal rulers for the first time, the curatorial approach is understandable.

Overall, the exhibition fulfils its mission. By showcasing fascinating objects that captivate modern audiences, it successfully attracts public interest. No one can overlook the gleaming gold leaf and vibrant colours on manuscript illustrations, the sparkle of objects adorned with mother-of-pearl, rubies, diamonds and other gemstones, or the exquisitely carved jade and crystal. In this way, every visitor is invited to share the sentiment expressed by Amir Khusrow (1253–1325): ‘If there is paradise on earth, it is this, it is this, it is this.’

Haoyang Zhao is Associate Lecturer at Courtauld Institute of Art.

All photos courtesy of the author.